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Programming Articles on MQL5.com

Most read articles this week

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 11): Automation (III)

Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 11): Automation (III)

An automated system will not be successful without proper security. However, security will not be ensured without a good understanding of certain things. In this article, we will explore why achieving maximum security in automated systems is such a challenge.

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

Buying a trading robot on MQL5 Market has a distinct benefit over all other similar options - an automated system offered can be thoroughly tested directly in the MetaTrader 5 terminal. Before buying, an Expert Advisor can and should be carefully run in all unfavorable modes in the built-in Strategy Tester to get a complete grasp of the system.

Published article "Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 12): Automation (IV)".

Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 12): Automation (IV)

If you think automated systems are simple, then you probably don't fully understand what it takes to create them. In this article, we will talk about the problem that kills a lot of Expert Advisors. The indiscriminate triggering of orders is a possible solution to this problem.

Published article "How to create a custom True Strength Index indicator using MQL5".

How to create a custom True Strength Index indicator using MQL5

Here is a new article about how to create a custom indicator. This time we will work with the True Strength Index (TSI) and will create an Expert Advisor based on it.

Published article "Category Theory in MQL5 (Part 7): Multi, Relative and Indexed Domains".

Category Theory in MQL5 (Part 7): Multi, Relative and Indexed Domains

Category Theory is a diverse and expanding branch of Mathematics which is only recently getting some coverage in the MQL5 community. These series of articles look to explore and examine some of its concepts & axioms with the overall goal of establishing an open library that provides insight while also hopefully furthering the use of this remarkable field in Traders' strategy development.

Published article "How to connect MetaTrader 5 to PostgreSQL".

How to connect MetaTrader 5 to PostgreSQL

This article describes four methods for connecting MQL5 code to a Postgres database and provides a step-by-step tutorial for setting up a development environment for one of them, a REST API, using the Windows Subsystem For Linux (WSL). A demo app for the API is provided along with the corresponding MQL5 code to insert data and query the respective tables, as well as a demo Expert Advisor to consume this data.

Most read articles this month

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

Buying a trading robot on MQL5 Market has a distinct benefit over all other similar options - an automated system offered can be thoroughly tested directly in the MetaTrader 5 terminal. Before buying, an Expert Advisor can and should be carefully run in all unfavorable modes in the built-in Strategy Tester to get a complete grasp of the system.

Most read articles this week

Take a few lessons from Prop Firms (Part 1) — An introduction

Take a few lessons from Prop Firms (Part 1) — An introduction

In this introductory article, I address a few of the lessons one can take from the challenge rules that proprietary trading firms implement. This is especially relevant for beginners and those who struggle to find their footing in this world of trading. The subsequent article will address the code implementation.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

Published article "Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 11): Automation (III)".

Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 11): Automation (III)

An automated system will not be successful without proper security. However, security will not be ensured without a good understanding of certain things. In this article, we will explore why achieving maximum security in automated systems is such a challenge.

Published article "Population optimization algorithms: Saplings Sowing and Growing up (SSG)".

Population optimization algorithms: Saplings Sowing and Growing up (SSG)

Saplings Sowing and Growing up (SSG) algorithm is inspired by one of the most resilient organisms on the planet demonstrating outstanding capability for survival in a wide variety of conditions.

Published article "Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 10): Automation (II)".

Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 10): Automation (II)

Automation means nothing if you cannot control its schedule. No worker can be efficient working 24 hours a day. However, many believe that an automated system should operate 24 hours a day. But it is always good to have means to set a working time range for the EA. In this article, we will consider how to properly set such a time range.

Published article "Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 09): Automation (I)".

Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 09): Automation (I)

Although the creation of an automated EA is not a very difficult task, however, many mistakes can be made without the necessary knowledge. In this article, we will look at how to build the first level of automation, which consists in creating a trigger to activate breakeven and a trailing stop level.

Published article "Experiments with neural networks (Part 4): Templates".

Experiments with neural networks (Part 4): Templates

In this article, I will use experimentation and non-standard approaches to develop a profitable trading system and check whether neural networks can be of any help for traders. MetaTrader 5 as a self-sufficient tool for using neural networks in trading. Simple explanation.

Most read articles this month

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

In this article, we will continue our series of creating a trading system based on the most popular technical indicator. Here is a new technical tool which is the Fibonacci and we will learn how to design a trading system based on this technical indicator.

Published article "How to create a custom indicator (Heiken Ashi) using MQL5".

How to create a custom indicator (Heiken Ashi) using MQL5

In this article, we will learn how to create a custom indicator using MQL5 based on our preferences, to be used in MetaTrader 5 to help us read charts or to be used in automated Expert Advisors.

Most read articles this week

How to detect trends and chart patterns using MQL5

How to detect trends and chart patterns using MQL5

In this article, we will provide a method to detect price actions patterns automatically by MQL5, like trends (Uptrend, Downtrend, Sideways), Chart patterns (Double Tops, Double Bottoms).

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

Published article "Neural networks made easy (Part 36): Relational Reinforcement Learning".

Neural networks made easy (Part 36): Relational Reinforcement Learning

In the reinforcement learning models we discussed in previous article, we used various variants of convolutional networks that are able to identify various objects in the original data. The main advantage of convolutional networks is the ability to identify objects regardless of their location. At the same time, convolutional networks do not always perform well when there are various deformations of objects and noise. These are the issues which the relational model can solve.

There are more than 1 310 articles published on site

Published article "Population optimization algorithms: Monkey algorithm (MA)".

Population optimization algorithms: Monkey algorithm (MA)

In this article, I will consider the Monkey Algorithm (MA) optimization algorithm. The ability of these animals to overcome difficult obstacles and get to the most inaccessible tree tops formed the basis of the idea of the MA algorithm.

Published article "Take a few lessons from Prop Firms (Part 1) — An introduction".

Take a few lessons from Prop Firms (Part 1) — An introduction

In this introductory article, I address a few of the lessons one can take from the challenge rules that proprietary trading firms implement. This is especially relevant for beginners and those who struggle to find their footing in this world of trading. The subsequent article will address the code implementation.

Most read articles this month

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

In this article, we will continue our series of creating a trading system based on the most popular technical indicator. Here is a new technical tool which is the Fibonacci and we will learn how to design a trading system based on this technical indicator.

Most read articles this week

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

Buying a trading robot on MQL5 Market has a distinct benefit over all other similar options - an automated system offered can be thoroughly tested directly in the MetaTrader 5 terminal. Before buying, an Expert Advisor can and should be carefully run in all unfavorable modes in the built-in Strategy Tester to get a complete grasp of the system.

Published article "Population optimization algorithms: Harmony Search (HS)".

Population optimization algorithms: Harmony Search (HS)

In the current article, I will study and test the most powerful optimization algorithm - harmonic search (HS) inspired by the process of finding the perfect sound harmony. So what algorithm is now the leader in our rating?

Published article "How to detect trends and chart patterns using MQL5".

How to detect trends and chart patterns using MQL5

In this article, we will provide a method to detect price actions patterns automatically by MQL5, like trends (Uptrend, Downtrend, Sideways), Chart patterns (Double Tops, Double Bottoms).

Published article "An example of how to ensemble ONNX models in MQL5".

An example of how to ensemble ONNX models in MQL5

ONNX (Open Neural Network eXchange) is an open format built to represent neural networks. In this article, we will show how to use two ONNX models in one Expert Advisor simultaneously.

Most read articles this month

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

In this article, we will continue our series of creating a trading system based on the most popular technical indicator. Here is a new technical tool which is the Fibonacci and we will learn how to design a trading system based on this technical indicator.

Published article "Category Theory in MQL5 (Part 6): Monomorphic Pull-Backs and Epimorphic Push-Outs".

Category Theory in MQL5 (Part 6): Monomorphic Pull-Backs and Epimorphic Push-Outs

Category Theory is a diverse and expanding branch of Mathematics which is only recently getting some coverage in the MQL5 community. These series of articles look to explore and examine some of its concepts & axioms with the overall goal of establishing an open library that provides insight while also hopefully furthering the use of this remarkable field in Traders' strategy development.

Published article "Backpropagation Neural Networks using MQL5 Matrices".

Backpropagation Neural Networks using MQL5 Matrices

The article describes the theory and practice of applying the backpropagation algorithm in MQL5 using matrices. It provides ready-made classes along with script, indicator and Expert Advisor examples.

Most read articles this week

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

Buying a trading robot on MQL5 Market has a distinct benefit over all other similar options - an automated system offered can be thoroughly tested directly in the MetaTrader 5 terminal. Before buying, an Expert Advisor can and should be carefully run in all unfavorable modes in the built-in Strategy Tester to get a complete grasp of the system.

Published article "Population optimization algorithms: Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA)".

Population optimization algorithms: Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA)

GSA is a population optimization algorithm inspired by inanimate nature. Thanks to Newton's law of gravity implemented in the algorithm, the high reliability of modeling the interaction of physical bodies allows us to observe the enchanting dance of planetary systems and galactic clusters. In this article, I will consider one of the most interesting and original optimization algorithms. The simulator of the space objects movement is provided as well.

Published article "Understand and Efficiently use OpenCL API by Recreating built-in support as DLL on Linux (Part 2): OpenCL Simple DLL implementation".

Understand and Efficiently use OpenCL API by Recreating built-in support as DLL on Linux (Part 2): OpenCL Simple DLL implementation

Continued from the part 1 in the series, now we proceed to implement as a simple DLL then test with MetaTrader 5. This will prepare us well before developing a full-fledge OpenCL as DLL support in the following part to come.

Published article "Alan Andrews and his methods of time series analysis".

Alan Andrews and his methods of time series analysis

Alan Andrews is one of the most famous "educators" of the modern world in the field of trading. His "pitchfork" is included in almost all modern quote analysis programs. But most traders do not use even a fraction of the opportunities that this tool provides. Besides, Andrews' original training course includes a description not only of the pitchfork (although it remains the main tool), but also of some other useful constructions. The article provides an insight into the marvelous chart analysis methods that Andrews taught in his original course. Beware, there will be a lot of images.

Published article "How to use ONNX models in MQL5".

How to use ONNX models in MQL5

ONNX (Open Neural Network Exchange) is an open format built to represent machine learning models. In this article, we will consider how to create a CNN-LSTM model to forecast financial timeseries. We will also show how to use the created ONNX model in an MQL5 Expert Advisor.

Most read articles this month

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

Buying a trading robot on MQL5 Market has a distinct benefit over all other similar options - an automated system offered can be thoroughly tested directly in the MetaTrader 5 terminal. Before buying, an Expert Advisor can and should be carefully run in all unfavorable modes in the built-in Strategy Tester to get a complete grasp of the system.

Published article "Implementing the Janus factor in MQL5".

Implementing the Janus factor in MQL5

Gary Anderson developed a method of market analysis based on a theory he dubbed the Janus Factor. The theory describes a set of indicators that can be used to reveal trends and assess market risk. In this article we will implement these tools in mql5.

There are more than 1 300 articles published on site

Published article "Category Theory in MQL5 (Part 5): Equalizers".

Category Theory in MQL5 (Part 5): Equalizers

Category Theory is a diverse and expanding branch of Mathematics which is only recently getting some coverage in the MQL5 community. These series of articles look to explore and examine some of its concepts & axioms with the overall goal of establishing an open library that provides insight while also hopefully furthering the use of this remarkable field in Traders' strategy development.

Published article "How to use MQL5 to detect candlesticks patterns".

How to use MQL5 to detect candlesticks patterns

A new article to learn how to detect candlesticks patterns on prices automatically by MQL5.

Most read articles this week

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

In this article, we will continue our series of creating a trading system based on the most popular technical indicator. Here is a new technical tool which is the Fibonacci and we will learn how to design a trading system based on this technical indicator.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

Published article "Moral expectation in trading".

Moral expectation in trading

This article is about moral expectation. We will look at several examples of its use in trading, as well as the results that can be achieved with its help.

Published article "Canvas based indicators: Filling channels with transparency".

Canvas based indicators: Filling channels with transparency

In this article I'll introduce a method for creating custom indicators whose drawings are made using the class CCanvas from standard library and see charts properties for coordinates conversion. I'll approach specially indicators which need to fill the area between two lines using transparency.

Published article "Neural networks made easy (Part 35): Intrinsic Curiosity Module".

Neural networks made easy (Part 35): Intrinsic Curiosity Module

We continue to study reinforcement learning algorithms. All the algorithms we have considered so far required the creation of a reward policy to enable the agent to evaluate each of its actions at each transition from one system state to another. However, this approach is rather artificial. In practice, there is some time lag between an action and a reward. In this article, we will get acquainted with a model training algorithm which can work with various time delays from the action to the reward.

Published article "Creating a comprehensive Owl trading strategy".

Creating a comprehensive Owl trading strategy

My strategy is based on the classic trading fundamentals and the refinement of indicators that are widely used in all types of markets. This is a ready-made tool allowing you to follow the proposed new profitable trading strategy.

Published article "Category Theory in MQL5 (Part 4): Spans, Experiments, and Compositions".

Category Theory in MQL5 (Part 4): Spans, Experiments, and Compositions

Category Theory is a diverse and expanding branch of Mathematics which as of yet is relatively uncovered in the MQL5 community. These series of articles look to introduce and examine some of its concepts with the overall goal of establishing an open library that provides insight while hopefully furthering the use of this remarkable field in Traders' strategy development.

Most read articles this month

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

Buying a trading robot on MQL5 Market has a distinct benefit over all other similar options - an automated system offered can be thoroughly tested directly in the MetaTrader 5 terminal. Before buying, an Expert Advisor can and should be carefully run in all unfavorable modes in the built-in Strategy Tester to get a complete grasp of the system.

Published article "Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 08): OnTradeTransaction".

Creating an EA that works automatically (Part 08): OnTradeTransaction

In this article, we will see how to use the event handling system to quickly and efficiently process issues related to the order system. With this system the EA will work faster, so that it will not have to constantly search for the required data.

Published article "Data Science and Machine Learning(Part 14): Finding Your Way in the Markets with Kohonen Maps".

Data Science and Machine Learning(Part 14): Finding Your Way in the Markets with Kohonen Maps

Are you looking for a cutting-edge approach to trading that can help you navigate complex and ever-changing markets? Look no further than Kohonen maps, an innovative form of artificial neural networks that can help you uncover hidden patterns and trends in market data. In this article, we'll explore how Kohonen maps work, and how they can be used to develop smarter, more effective trading strategies. Whether you're a seasoned trader or just starting out, you won't want to miss this exciting new approach to trading.

Published article "Neural networks made easy (Part 34): Fully Parameterized Quantile Function".

Neural networks made easy (Part 34): Fully Parameterized Quantile Function

We continue studying distributed Q-learning algorithms. In previous articles, we have considered distributed and quantile Q-learning algorithms. In the first algorithm, we trained the probabilities of given ranges of values. In the second algorithm, we trained ranges with a given probability. In both of them, we used a priori knowledge of one distribution and trained another one. In this article, we will consider an algorithm which allows the model to train for both distributions.

Published article "Testing and optimization of binary options strategies in MetaTrader 5".

Testing and optimization of binary options strategies in MetaTrader 5

In this article, I will check and optimize binary options strategies in MetaTrader 5.

Most read articles this week

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

Learn how to design a trading system by Fibonacci

In this article, we will continue our series of creating a trading system based on the most popular technical indicator. Here is a new technical tool which is the Fibonacci and we will learn how to design a trading system based on this technical indicator.

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

Most read articles this month

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

How to purchase a trading robot from the MetaTrader Market and to install it?

A product from the MetaTrader Market can be purchased on the MQL5.com website or straight from the MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5 trading platforms. Choose a desired product that suits your trading style, pay for it using your preferred payment method, and activate the product.

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

MetaTrader 5 on Linux

In this article, we demonstrate an easy way to install MetaTrader 5 on popular Linux versions — Ubuntu and Debian. These systems are widely used on server hardware as well as on traders’ personal computers.

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

How to Test a Trading Robot Before Buying

Buying a trading robot on MQL5 Market has a distinct benefit over all other similar options - an automated system offered can be thoroughly tested directly in the MetaTrader 5 terminal. Before buying, an Expert Advisor can and should be carefully run in all unfavorable modes in the built-in Strategy Tester to get a complete grasp of the system.

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